Modern schools of ecological thought

Main ways of thinking about nature

Environmental thought asks why we should protect nature. The answers can be grouped by where they place value.

• Anthropocentrism (human-centred): nature matters because it serves human needs: food, water, timber, beauty. Protecting a forest is good because people need its water and wood. Most conventional resource management is anthropocentric.
• Biocentrism (life-centred): every living organism has value in itself. Albert Schweitzer’s “reverence for life” is an example.
• Ecocentrism (ecosystem-centred): whole ecosystems, species and natural processes have value, not just individuals. Aldo Leopold’s “land ethic” in *A Sand County Almanac* (1949) said that a thing is right when it tends to protect the integrity, stability and beauty of the biotic community.

Several modern schools grew out of these positions, especially after Rachel Carson’s *Silent Spring* (1962) showed the harm caused by pesticides such as DDT:

• Deep ecology (Arne Naess, 1973): nature has intrinsic value; humans must change their basic values and lifestyles.
• Land stewardship (Wendell Berry): people should care for land as responsible caretakers, through small farms and local communities.
• Social ecology (Murray Bookchin) and Marxist/socialist ecology (Barry Commoner): environmental damage comes from social and economic systems such as hierarchy and the profit motive.
• Ecofeminism: the domination of women and the domination of nature are linked.
• Sustainable development: meet present needs without harming future generations; it balances economy, society and environment.

Key points

• Anthropocentric = human-centred; ecocentric = ecosystem-centred; biocentric = all life has value.
• Aldo Leopold → land ethic, *A Sand County Almanac* (1949).
• Rachel Carson → *Silent Spring* (1962), on pesticides.
• Arne Naess → coined “deep ecology” (1973).
• Murray Bookchin → social ecology.

Exam tips

Questions often describe a viewpoint and ask you to name the school. Look for clue words: “intrinsic value” points to deep ecology or ecocentrism; “caretaker” points to stewardship; “hierarchy” or “capitalism” points to social or Marxist ecology; “women and nature” points to ecofeminism.

Common mistakes

• Confusing biocentrism (individual living things) with ecocentrism (whole ecosystems).
• Thinking Rachel Carson founded deep ecology; she wrote *Silent Spring*, but the term deep ecology is Naess’s.
• Assuming all environmentalism is anti-human; anthropocentric views also support conservation.