The essentials
The Permanent Settlement was introduced in Bengal in 1793 under Governor-General Lord Cornwallis. The East India Company fixed the revenue that each zamindar had to pay, and this amount was not to be increased in the future. The Company hoped this would ensure a regular flow of revenue and encourage zamindars to invest in improving land, creating a class of loyal landowners.
In practice, many zamindars failed to pay. Reasons included: the initial demand was very high; it was imposed at a time when agricultural prices were depressed; revenue was invariable regardless of harvest; and the zamindar's power was curtailed, as the Company disbanded their troops and removed their police and judicial functions. In addition, ryots often delayed payments. Under the sunset law, if payment did not come in by sunset of the specified date, the estate could be auctioned.
Key points
- In the auction of the estates of the Raja of Burdwan in 1797, many purchasers were the raja's own servants or agents (benami purchases), so the zamindar kept control indirectly.
- Jotedars were rich peasants who controlled large areas of land, local trade and moneylending, especially in north Bengal (Dinajpur). Their land was cultivated by sharecroppers (adhiyars or bargadars).
- Jotedars often resisted the zamindar's efforts to increase rent and encouraged ryots to delay payments.
- The zamindar's officer who collected rent was the amlah; lathyals were lathi-wielding strongmen.
- Zamindars used tactics such as fictitious sales and women of the family claiming property to avoid losing land.
Common mistakes
- The Permanent Settlement fixed the revenue demand, not the rent paid by ryots to zamindars.