Subsistence and settlement

The essentials

Harappans ate a wide range of plant and animal products. Charred grains and seeds show that they grew wheat, barley, lentil, chickpea and sesame; millets are found at sites in Gujarat, and rice is found less often. Animal bones show cattle, sheep, goat, buffalo and pig; bones of wild animals and fish suggest hunting and fishing too.

Evidence of farming comes from terracotta models of the plough found at Banawali (Haryana) and Cholistan, and from a ploughed field found at Kalibangan (Rajasthan), with two sets of furrows at right angles, suggesting two crops were grown together. Irrigation was likely needed in dry areas; canals have been traced at Shortughai in Afghanistan, and reservoirs at Dholavira.

Key points

• Mohenjodaro was divided into a smaller, raised Citadel and a larger Lower Town.
• Buildings stood on platforms, which protected them from floods; the settlement was planned before construction.
• Bricks (sun-dried or baked) were of a standard ratio: length four times the height and breadth twice the height.
• Roads and streets were laid out in a roughly grid pattern, crossing at right angles.
• Drains were covered and ran along streets; house drains joined the street drains.
• Houses were built around courtyards, with no windows on the ground floor walls facing the street, suggesting a concern for privacy. Many had their own bathrooms and wells.
• The Citadel had structures such as the warehouse and the Great Bath, a large tank with steps on two sides, probably used for some special ritual bath.

Exam tips

• Link sites to evidence: Kalibangan (ploughed field), Banawali (plough model), Shortughai (canals), Dholavira (reservoirs).

Common mistakes

• Saying the Great Bath was in the Lower Town; it is in the Citadel.
• Assuming rice was the main Harappan cereal; wheat and barley were more common.