Primary texts on education
Selections on knowledge, the pupil and the goal of education; Xuanzang on Nalanda.
The essentials
Primary sources give direct evidence of educational ideals. The Mundaka Upanishad tells how Shaunaka asks the sage Angiras, "What is that by knowing which everything becomes known?" Angiras answers by describing two kinds of knowledge, apara and para. The Taittiriya Upanishad describes the teacher and pupil joined by instruction, and gives the convocation address urging truth, dharma and self-study. The opening invocation "saha navavatu" prays that teacher and student be protected together, nourished together, work together with vigour, that their study be illumined, and that they not dislike each other.
The Chinese Buddhist pilgrim Xuanzang (Hiuen Tsang) travelled in India in the 7th century CE (around 629–645), during the reign of Harsha, and studied at Nalanda under the teacher Shilabhadra. His account, known as the Si-yu-ki (Records of the Western Regions), and a biography by his disciple, describe Nalanda's high towers and buildings, its strict discipline, the learning of its monks, and its admission process: visitors who wished to enter were questioned by the gatekeeper, and many failed. Subjects included Buddhist philosophy as well as grammar, logic, medicine and the Vedas. Another Chinese pilgrim, Yijing (I-tsing), also studied at Nalanda later in the 7th century.
Key points
- Mundaka Upanishad: Shaunaka–Angiras dialogue; para and apara vidya.
- Taittiriya Upanishad: "saha navavatu"; convocation address.
- Xuanzang: 7th century, Harsha's reign, Nalanda, teacher Shilabhadra.
- Nalanda: entrance by debate/questioning, wide range of subjects.
Exam tips
- Remember who asked and who answered in the Mundaka Upanishad.
- Know the period and patron associated with Xuanzang's visit.
Common mistakes
- Confusing Xuanzang with Faxian (Fa-hien), who came earlier, during the Gupta period.