The essentials
The Kashmir dispute led to a conflict between India and Pakistan soon after Partition, in 1947–48. Despite tensions the two countries cooperated on some issues; the Indus Waters Treaty of 1960, brokered by the World Bank and signed by Nehru and General Ayub Khan, still governs the sharing of the Indus river waters.
The 1965 war: in April 1965 Pakistan launched attacks in the Rann of Kutch in Gujarat, and in August–September it launched a larger offensive in Jammu and Kashmir. Under Prime Minister Lal Bahadur Shastri, Indian forces counter-attacked on the Punjab border. The UN intervened to end hostilities. Shastri and Ayub Khan signed the Tashkent Agreement in January 1966, mediated by Soviet Prime Minister Alexei Kosygin. Shastri died in Tashkent soon after.
The 1971 war: in the 1970 elections in Pakistan, the Awami League led by Sheikh Mujibur Rahman won a majority on the strength of its support in East Pakistan, but power was not transferred. The Pakistani army cracked down in 1971, and millions of refugees fled to India. India signed a 20-year Treaty of Peace and Friendship with the Soviet Union in August 1971. Full-scale war broke out in December 1971; within about two weeks the Pakistani forces in the east surrendered, and Bangladesh became independent.
Key points
- The USA and China supported Pakistan in 1971, while the USSR backed India.
- The Shimla Agreement was signed in July 1972 by Indira Gandhi and Zulfikar Ali Bhutto; it committed both countries to settle differences bilaterally and peacefully.
- The 1965 war came soon after the 1962 war with China, during a time of economic strain.
Exam tips
- Pair the wars with the agreements: 1965 → Tashkent (1966); 1971 → Shimla (1972).
- Remember the leaders who signed each agreement.
Common mistakes
- Thinking the Tashkent Agreement was signed by Indira Gandhi; it was signed by Lal Bahadur Shastri.
- Confusing the Indus Waters Treaty (1960) with a peace agreement after a war.