The essentials
The nineteenth century saw many social reform movements in India. They responded to issues such as sati, child marriage, the ban on widow remarriage, the lack of women's education and caste discrimination. Reformers used both modern liberal ideas of equality and rights and reinterpretations of religious texts to argue for change.
Important organisations included the Brahmo Samaj in Bengal, founded by Raja Ram Mohan Roy; the Prarthana Samaj in Maharashtra; the Arya Samaj founded by Dayanand Saraswati, which looked to the Vedas; the Satyashodhak Samaj founded by Jyotiba Phule, which attacked Brahminical dominance; the Aligarh movement of Sir Syed Ahmed Khan, which promoted modern education among Muslims; and Sri Narayana Guru's movement in Kerala, which challenged caste discrimination with the idea of "one caste, one religion, one God for humankind".
Satish Saberwal explains that these reforms used three features of the modern context: new modes of communication (printing press, newspapers, railways), new forms of organisation (associations and societies) and new ideas (liberalism, freedom, rationality).
Reform led to laws. Sati was abolished in 1829, the Hindu Widows' Remarriage Act was passed in 1856, and the Child Marriage Restraint Act (often called the Sarda Act) was passed in 1929. After independence, laws on marriage, inheritance and against dowry continued the process.
Key points
- Reform was both modern (rights, reason) and traditional (scriptural reinterpretation).
- Movements often began among the educated middle class but spread more widely.
- Lower-caste movements challenged caste hierarchy directly.
Exam tips
Match reformers with organisations and regions. Learn the three dates of major laws.
Common mistakes
Do not attribute the Arya Samaj to Ram Mohan Roy or the Brahmo Samaj to Dayanand.