The essentials
Tribal movements arise from the loss of land and forests, exploitation by outsiders, and the demand for recognition and self-rule. The Jharkhand movement is a leading example. It drew on a history of resistance, including Birsa Munda's revolt against the British in the late nineteenth century. Mission-educated tribal leaders and later political parties, such as the Jharkhand Party associated with Jaipal Singh, articulated demands against "dikus" (outsiders: traders, moneylenders and officials). The separate state of Jharkhand was finally created in 2000. Tribal movements in the north-east have focused on identity, autonomy and land, sometimes involving long armed conflicts.
Environmental movements are often described as new social movements, yet in India they are closely tied to livelihood and to class and community. The Chipko movement, which began in the Garhwal Himalaya in 1973, saw villagers, many of them women, hugging trees to prevent logging by contractors. Leaders associated with it include Chandi Prasad Bhatt and Sunderlal Bahuguna. It combined ecological concern with economic survival, since forests provided fuel, fodder and water, and it also challenged the state's control of forests.
The Narmada Bachao Andolan, associated with Medha Patkar, opposed the large dams on the Narmada river, especially the Sardar Sarovar project, because they would displace many tribal and peasant families without proper rehabilitation. It raised questions about who pays the costs of development. The Appiko movement in Karnataka was inspired by Chipko.
Key points
- Tribal movements: land, forests, identity, autonomy and statehood.
- Environmental movements in India link ecology with livelihood and justice.
- Displacement by dams and mines is a central issue.
- Women have played leading roles in ecological struggles.
Common mistakes
Do not describe Chipko as only a nature-conservation campaign; it was also an economic struggle over livelihood.